Morphology is a systematized set of word forms (declension, conjugation paradigms), as well as rules for their use, and at the same time it is a section of grammar that studies and describes these forms and rules.
Let's consider morphological norms according to their belonging to one or another part of speech.
Noun
Difficulty in use noun concern the grammatical categories of gender, number and case.
Difficulties arise when determining genus categories at a noun:
1) Nouns with suffixes subjective assessment (-ysh- , -ishk-, -ushk-, -isch ) retain the gender of the word from which they originate: house - big house(masculine) barn - oldshed(masculine) sparrow - young sparrow(masculine) perch - small perch(masculine) voice - strong voice(masculine) the letter is a ridiculous letter(neuter), etc.
2) The gender of indeclinable nouns is determined by the meaning of the word. Inanimate nouns are usually neuter: aloe, coat, taxi, cocoa, piano, popsicle,jersey, jelly, jury, muffler, kimono, puree, stew, radio etc. However, there are exceptions: Avenue - feminine (less often neuter); bolero (Spanish national dance) - masculine and neuter; whiskey - average and male; kohlrabi - female; mango - masculine and neuter; sirocco (sultry wind in Africa) - masculine; penalty - masculine and neuter gender; salami - female; Urdu, Hindi (languages) - masculine, coffee - male.
Indeclinable names of persons are masculine or feminine depending on the gender of the person designated, for example: words lady, miss, frau belong to the feminine gender; dandy, croupier, attache belong to the masculine gender, etc.
Some words belong to the general gender, as they can denote male and female persons: vis-a-vis, incognito, prote Same, Sami (nationality), Somalia (nationality), etc.
3) Indeclinable names of animals (for example: dingo, gray, hummingbird, cockatoos, kangaroos, marabou, ponies, chimpanzees and etc. ) in accordance with the literary norm, they are classified as masculine. The exceptions are the words: Ivasi , tsetse belong to the feminine gender.
The names of animals in a sentence can be used as feminine words if the text contains an indication of a female animal, for example: Kangaroo feeding baby.
4) The gender of indeclinable geographical names is determined by the noun denoting the generic concept: Missouri refers to the feminine gender, since the generic concept is river, Erie – neuter, since the generic concept is lake, etc.
The same principle is used to determine the gender of indeclinable nouns, which are the names of magazines, newspapers, clubs, sports teams, etc., for example: Manchester (football club) is masculine, " Sports review » is feminine, as it is the name of a newspaper, etc.
5) For letter abbreviations, the gender is associated with their morphological form. As a rule, abbreviations are not declined; their gender is usually determined by the gender of the main word: VDNH (feminine, since the main word is exhibition), Emergency (neuter gender, since the main word is position), etc. However, these kinds of abbreviations often exhibit deviations from this rule, especially in cases where the abbreviations become familiar and begin to decline. For example, NEP refers to the masculine gender, although the core word is feminine (politics); Ministry of Foreign Affairs - masculine, although the core word is neuter (ministry); HAC - masculine, although the core word commission is feminine.
6) Certain masculine words in the Russian language denote both male and female persons. Such nouns denote persons by profession, occupation, positions and titles, for example: hero, associate professor, professor, lawyer,economist, accountant, lawyer, prosecutor and so on.
Case ending options:
1) B instrumental case singular for feminine nouns, variant endings are possible in accordance with the literary norm - oh(s)/-oh(s) (water - water, country - country), which differ only in stylistic coloring: ending - oh characteristic of bookish, official or poetic speech, and the ending - Ouch(- to her) has a neutral character, i.e. it is used in any style.
2) For real nouns in the genitive case singular possible endings - A And - at : snow - snow, sugar - sugar etc. Forms with endings -y in literary language are permissible only when denoting a part of the whole: bought some sugar(But productionquantity of sugar), got drunk on tea(But tea growing). In addition, forms ending -y characteristic of oral colloquial speech, and forms with the ending -A neutral. In written form the forms are -y found in stable combinations: givethe heat, there was no agreement, give up, no passage, no passage, withoutdemand etc. These forms are also found in words with a diminutive meaning: onion, seagull, kvass and etc.
3) Nouns in the genitive plural form can have a zero ending or an ending -s . The ending is considered literary -s : apricots, oranges, bananas, grams, kilograms, mandarins, tomatoes, tomatoes, rails, socks(But:stocking) and etc .
The following groups of nouns have a zero ending:
a) name of units of measurement: volt, ampere, watt, hertz, kilowatt, ohm etc., but hectares, grams, inches, coulombs, lux, microns, pounds, feet, yards;
b) some names of vegetables and fruits: apples, pomegranate;
c) some names of persons according to military units: soldiers, partisans, hussars, but: officers, generals, captains, majors, sappers, miners;
d) names of persons according to their national groups: Buryats, Georgians, Gypsies, Bulgarians, Ossetians, Turkmen etc., but Belarusians, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Yakuts and etc.
You should remember the genitive case forms of the words: saucers, cases, shares, skittles, nannies, coasts, towels, sheets, boots, candles, thatfel, shilyev, manger.
4) The declination of surnames and geographical names deserves special attention:
a) last names - co type Korolenko, Shevchenko, Sidorenko do not bow down;
b) last names -ago, -yago, -ovo, -yh, -ikh do not bow: Chernykh's dictionary, Zhivago's novel;
c) if the surnames coincide with common nouns, then female surnames are not declined ( met Anna Sokol), and men's bow ( met Vladimir Sokol). In the latter case, several options are possible: surnames with suffixes - ec, -ek, -ok, -ate It is better to decline without dropping the vowel: Ivan Zayatsu, Timofey Perets; surnames ending in a soft consonant, denoting male persons, are declined as masculine nouns, although, being common nouns, they can be feminine words, cf.: Ivan Rys,to Vladimir Dahl.
d) Russian surnames -in, -ov have an ending in the instrumental case - th : Frolov, Ivanov, Kalinin. Geographical names with suffixes –in , -s have endings in the instrumental case - ohm : the city of Kalininome, village Golyshmanovo. Ending - ohm also have foreign-language surnames -in, -ov : Darwin, Chaplin, Calvin. Female foreign-language surnames do not have a consonant.
e) foreign language surnames with a vowel (except for unstressed ones) -and I) with a preceding consonant) are not declined: works by Rimbaud, operas by Meringue, paintings by Leonardo da Vinci. From surnames to drums – and I) only Slavic ones are inclined ( Skovoroda's philosophy). Foreign language surnames with unstressed ones – and I) bow: poems by Pablo Neruda, theory by Campanella. Foreign language surnames – ia don't bow ( sonnets of Heredia), on -and I lean ( Beria's office).
5) Difficulties arise in cases where the surname refers to two persons. Here you should adhere to the following rules:
a) if the last name has two male names or masculine nouns, then it is put in the plural form ( August and Wilhelm Schlegel, father and son of Oistrakh);
b) with two female names, the surname is used in the singular form ( Tamara and Irina Press),
c) if the surname is accompanied by male and female names, then it retains the singular form ( Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt), but when combining husband and wife, brother and sister, the surname is used in the plural ( husband and wife Robins, brother and sister Nuringa);
d) with the words spouse, brothers, sisters, the surname is most often used in the singular form ( Kent spouses, Grimm brothers, Koch sisters).
Features of the formation of plural forms:
1) In the nominative plural, most words, according to the norms of the literary language, correspond to the ending - s(s) : mechanics, bakers, turners, searchlights etc. However, the ending option is possible - A . Forms with ending - A usually have a conversational or professional tone. Only in some words does the ending -a correspond to the literary norm (in approximately 70 words), for example: addresses, banks, sides, sides, centuries, centuriesvillage, director, doctor, chute, millstone, bin, boat, jacket, bell, body, dome, master, number, district, vacation, sail, passport, cook, cellar, train, professor, variety, watchman, tenor, paramedic,cold,cadets, anchors, etc..
Sometimes forms with endings - A And - s(s) differ in meaning, cf.: fur(cured animal skins) and furs(blacksmiths); buildings(torsos of people or animals) and housing(buildings; large military formations); camps(socio-political groups) and camps(parking lots, temporary settlements); of bread(cereal plants) and breads(baked); sable(fur) and sables(animals); wires(electric) and farewell(someone); hordeon(insignia) and orders(in medieval society, for example, the Order of the Sword), flowers(plants) - colors(paints).
2) Nouns on – anin(-yanin) ) plural ends in – any : citizen - citizens, peasant - peasants etc.
Lecture 7. Grammar rules
The next type of norms of the Russian literary language are grammatical norms. Grammatical norms are usually divided into: word-formation norms, morphological norms and syntactic norms
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words. A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derivative words instead of existing derivative words with a different affix, for example: character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by depth and truthfulness
Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology– a section of linguistics that includes the study of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the study of parts of speech and their characteristics.
1. Morphological norms of nouns.
2. Morphological norms of adjectives.
3. Morphological norms of numerals.
4. Morphological norms of pronouns.
5. Morphological norms of verbs.
1. Morphological norms of nouns
1) Literary and obsolete versions: hall - hall, boot - boot, rail - rail.
Vary forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank . Such nouns do not always have a full-fledged analogue to denote a female person. There are options:
Bigender nouns are masculine nouns, but can also be used to refer to female persons: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain.
Parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student.
Stylistic nouns in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced have a colloquial or vernacular character: doctor - doctor, conductor - conductor, director - headmistress.
2) Requires special attention assigning gender to indeclinable nouns , since in many of them we cannot be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example: what kind of word sconce? If we try to translate it, there will be different variants: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. You cannot use a translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are rules:
Inanimate foreign nouns belong to the neuter gender: cafe, metro, taxi, interview, aloe.
Animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine gender: my/my counterpart, this/that attache. In the names of animals ( cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony) the masculine gender acts as the main gender, and the feminine gender as an additional gender and depends on the context.
In words - geographical names, the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they designate: deep Mississippi(river → f.r.), multi-million dollar / festive Tokyo(city → m.r., capital → zh.r.).
- UN(organization → zh.r.). But there are exceptions here too: university(s.r. → m.r.), NATO– North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.o.) → s.r.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. began to be perceived as independent words and “changed” gender.
Nominative
Variant endings may be observed Y/N And AND I in plural forms of masculine nouns : agreement s– agreement A, mechanic And– locksmith I . The main one is the graduation rate Y/N , then as an option AND I most often acts as a colloquial one.
Genitive
Main ending option AND I (tea, sugar) with additional options U/S (tea, sugar). Usually ending U/S can be used in the following cases:
· for nouns with a real meaning when indicating their quantity - that is, to designate a part of the whole ( glass of cha Yu, kilogram sugar at, piece of cheese at ). However, if the noun is accompanied by a modifier, you need to choose the form with the ending AND I (a cup of hot tea I, a pack of dried tobacco A );
· for collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity ( few people at, a lot of noise at );
· in phraseological units ( without a year at week, from sight at to the eye, to the world at along the thread);
· V negative sentences (poco Yu no, refusal at did not have).
2) In the Genitive plural, masculine nouns have four variants of case endings: OB/EV(a lot of table ov , muse ev ), TO HER(a lot of pencil to her ) And null ending(a lot of boot). The following groups of masculine nouns have rare zero endings:
names of paired items ( boot, boot, stocking / But sock ov/, shoulder straps);
· names of some nationalities, mainly in letter-based nouns – n And - R (English, Armenians, Bulgarians);
names of units of measurement ( ampere, watt, volt, But coulombs, grams, kilograms).
Prepositional
In the Prepositional case to the main option - ending E in some cases endings are added U: to the workshop e- to the workshop at (in this case the option U – colloquial): grow into the forest at– know about the forest e (the ending distinguishes the shade in the meaning: circumstance and object), n and current account e- be in good standing at (in phraseological expressions).
3. Morphological norms of adjectives.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives. There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. The simple comparative form is formed using suffixes - her And - to her(colloquial): faster - faster, some adjectives form comparative degrees using the suffix - e: more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter. The simple superlative form of adjectives is formed using suffixes –aysh(ii) (Supreme), –eysh(ii) (beautiful).
The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and excellent using the word most ( This house is tall, but the one next door is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).
Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) confusion of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison ( taller, most beautiful) and 2) the absence of a comparison object ( This room is brighter. Need + than that).
As in the area of pronunciation, in morphology and syntax there are strong and weak norms. Strong ones are observed by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced by outsiders, are poorly absorbed and are often distorted. Their presence is determined by many reasons, in particular, by the peculiarities of the development of the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian language.
For example, in the Old Russian language there were initially ten types and subtypes of declension, and the type of declension was determined by the final sound of the stem and the meaning of the word.
In modern Russian - three declensions(depending on the gender of the noun and the ending of the word). The first declension is mostly feminine nouns ending in -a; second - masculine with a zero ending and neuter with -о and -е, third declension - feminine nouns with null ending. From the point of view of the distribution of nouns by declension depending on gender, the third declension turns out to be “superfluous”. That is why in speech quite often nouns of the third declension change gender and begin to be declined as nouns of the second declension ( I caught a mouse). On the other hand, masculine nouns with a soft consonant stem can change gender and decline in speech like third declension nouns ( I bought new shampoo).
Similar reasons are responsible for fluctuations in the nominative plural forms of masculine nouns of the second declension. In modern Russian, several endings are recorded, which go back to various Old Russian forms.
The original ending -i is preserved only in a few words with a solid foundation:
devil - devils, neighbor - neighbors.
The ending -a was originally the ending of the dual number. Now it is preserved in words denoting paired concepts, but is perceived as a plural ending:
sleeves, shores, eyes.
Shape type brothers, friends, leaves go back to the forms of feminine collective nouns.
Compare: the Old Church Slavonic version of one of these forms preserved in modern Russian: monastic brethren.
note to the fact that the forms in -ya retain a collective connotation of meaning (cf.: sheets - leaves; teeth - teeth).
Finally, the ending -e for nouns in -anin is original, since these nouns already in the Old Russian language belonged to the category of heterodeclinables and had special endings in the plural:
peasant - peasants, Christian - Christians.
Many similar examples can be given for other forms and other parts of speech.
Thus, in common speech, the absence of alternation of consonants in the forms of the present and simple future tense is very common ( the water is flowing instead of normative the water is flowing; she bakes bread instead of normative she bakes bread). This is due to the general tendency towards so-called base leveling. Already in the Old Russian period, the language sought to make the stem the same in all forms of one word.
This process went through this process quite consistently in nouns. And instead of the original forms - about pastus e, young pastus and- we now use the forms - about the shepherd, the young shepherd and. In a verb, this process is much slower. In some forms the alternation of consonants is lost (we say bake and bread instead of the original Old Russian - pz and bread), in others, the alternation of consonants has been preserved in the literary language ( I baked bread; she bakes bread), but may be lost in dialects and vernacular ( she bakes bread).
It is possible to identify other reasons that influence the appearance of a whole system of variants in morphology. The greatest difficulties are usually caused by the distribution of some nouns by gender, the formation of plural forms of nouns, and the formation of a number of forms of verbs. Let's look at some of them in more detail.
Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech.
Ø Morphological norms of a noun.
The difficulty of studying morphological norms is the choice of genus category.
Most often, violations of the norm occur when determining the gender of nouns. Most borrowed inanimate indeclinable nouns are neuter. For example: puree, jury, taxi, curlers.
The gender of some borrowed nouns should be determined by the word-gender concept. For example: kohlrabi - f.r. (cabbage), sirocco - m.r. (wind).
Animate borrowed nouns can be masculine if they denote a male person: attaché, entertainer, hidalgo. Also, indeclinable nouns denoting animals are masculine: kangaroo, cockatoo. Exceptions: tsetse, hummingbird, iwasi. The word is feminine if it is intended to refer to a female animal.
Animate borrowed nouns denoting female persons are classified as feminine: lady, miss.
The gender of geographical names is determined by the word-generic concept. For example, Sochi - m.r. (city), Ontario – s.r. (lake), Mississippi – g.r. (river).
The gender of abbreviations is determined by the gender of the main word: University – sr.r. (institution), UN – zh.r. (organization). Exception: TASS - m.r.
In the Russian language there are words whose gender can only be determined in context: quiet, big, klutz, gap, orphan etc. They can be used in both masculine and feminine genders. For example: Vova is so smart. Vera has always been quiet.
IN genitive case plural forms are used:
– masculine words: a pair of shoes, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volts (grams, kilograms);
– feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets;
– neuter words: saucer, towels, blanket, mirror;
– words that do not have a singular number: manger, everyday life, twilight.
In literary language, forms ending in - and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, vacation, passport, etc.; with ending – and, – s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc.
The rules for declination of a surname cannot depend on the desire or unwillingness of the bearer of the surname.
DO NOT BOW:
§ Women's surnames ending in a consonant and a soft sign (for Anna Zhuk, the family of Maria Mitskevich);
§ Female names ending in a consonant (Carmen, Gyulchatay, Elizabeth);
§ Foreign language surnames ending in a vowel sound, excluding unstressed -a, -ya (Hugo, Rossini, Shaw, Bruno);
§ Male and female names ending in a vowel, excluding -a,
I (Sergo, Nelly);
§ Surnames starting with -a, -ya with a preceding vowel -i (Sonnets of Iridius, stories of Gulia);
§ Russian surnames with endings: -ovo, -yago, -ago, -ih, -yh (Zhivago, Khitrovo, Polskikh, Sedykh);
§ Ukrainian surnames with accented and unstressed –ko (Golovko, Shevchenko, Makarenko);
§ The first part of a double surname, if it is not used in itself as a surname (Grun-Grijamailo, Demut-Malinovsy).
BONDING:
§ Male surnames and names ending with a consonant and a soft sign. (Adam Mickiewicz, Igor Koval);
§ Female names ending in a soft sign (Love, Judith);
§ Surnames with unstressed –a, -ya (Yana Neruda, Rosita Quintana);
§ Slavic surnames with accents –a, -ya (philosopher Skovoroda, director Golovnya);
§ The first part of Russian double surnames, if it is used in itself as a surname (Nemirovich-Danchenko, Mamin-Sibiryak, Saltykov-Shchedrin);
§ Polish female surnames ending in –a follow the example of Russian surnames ending in –aya. (Bandrowska-Turska);
§ Russian surnames na –ov, -ev, -iv, -yn, -in (Spitsyn, Sinitsyn);
§ Titles settlements na –ov, -ev, -ovo, -evo, -yn, -in in tv.p. have -om endings (near Tsaritsyn, near Borodin, before Ketov)
Ø Morphological norms of the adjective name.
Difficulties in using adjectives are associated with mixing forms
adjective degrees.
In modern Russian there are two degrees of adjectives: comparative and superlative.
comparative means that a characteristic is manifested in one object to a greater or lesser extent than in another.
The comparative degree can be simple or compound.
Simple comparative degree formed using suffixes –ee-, -ey-, -e-, -she-: more beautiful, brighter, bigger.
NOTE: good is better, bad is worse, small is less.
Compound comparative degree formed from the form of the full positive degree of the adjective using particles more/less: bright – less bright, small – smaller.
THE MIXING OF SIMPLE AND COMPONENT FORMS OF THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE LEADS TO A VIOLATION OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL NORM. USE IS NOT ACCEPTABLE: more brighter.
Superlative means that the characteristic is manifested in the object to the highest degree.
Just like the comparative degree, the superlative degree has two forms: simple and compound.
Simple superlative formed using suffixes - eish-/-aysh-: close-closest, important-most important.
Compound superlative is formed in three ways:
using an auxiliary word total+ simple comparative degree: brightest, smartest of all.
using auxiliary words most/least + positive degree of the adjective: highest, least closest.
using the word the most+ positive degree of adjective: the cleverest.
A VIOLATION OF THE NORM IS THE MIXING OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON. THE EXPRESSION WILL BE ERRORAL: the best.
You should know that only qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison.
Ø Morphological norms of the name of a numeral.
Difficulties associated with numerals are associated with the inability to inflect compound numerals.
| 50-80 | 500-800 | 200, 300, 400 | |
| I.p. | Fifty | Five hundred | Two hundred |
| R.p. | Fifty | Five hundred | Two hundred |
| D.p. | Fifty | Five hundred | Two hundred |
| V.p. | = I.p. | = I.p. | = I.p. |
| etc. | Fifty | Five hundred | Two hundred |
| P.p. | About fifty | About five hundred | About two hundred |
| I.p. V.p. | Fourty | Ninety | One hundred |
| R.p. D.p. etc. | P.p. | Magpie | Ninety |
hundred Words one and a half and one and a half hundred also have two forms: one and a half and one and a half hundred - i.p., v.p., and shapes one and a half and one and a half hundred -
in indirect cases.
The collective numerals two, three, etc. are used in the following cases:
– with nouns naming male persons (two friends);
– with nouns children, people, guys, persons (meaning person);
– with nouns used only in the plural (three days).
Accentological norms The features and functions of stress are studied by a branch of linguistics called accentology (from lat. accentus - emphasis). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages in which stress is assigned to a specific syllable. For example, in English language The first syllable is stressed, in Polish - the penultimate, in Armenian, French - the last. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Stress in Russian can be movable or fixed. If in different forms of a word the stress falls on the same part, then such stress is stationary (take care, take care, take care, take care, take care, take care - the stress is assigned to the ending). The accent changing its place in different forms
of the same word is called movable (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can). Most words in the Russian language have a fixed stress.
The semantics of a word depends on stress ( cotton - cotton; carnations - carnations).
It indicates the grammatical form ( hands- nominative plural, and hands- genitive singular).
Stress helps differentiate the meaning of words and their forms: protein- genitive case of the word squirrel, and protein– nominative case of the word that names component eggs or part of the eye. The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases because for some words there are variations in stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, e.g. kitchen, tool, petition, wrong: kitchen, tool, petition.
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms oral speech . They are studied by a special branch of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called a set of rules of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech; the listener's attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations and the statement is not perceived in its entirety and with sufficient attention. Pronunciation appropriate spelling standards, facilitates and speeds up the communication process. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses. Let's consider basic rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed.
Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound; they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the law of reduction. Reduction can be quantitative (when the sound changes only the length of the sound) and qualitative (when the sound changes its quality).
The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine - [a]enemy, autonomy - [a]vt[a]nomiya, milk - m[a]l[ a]ko. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable indicate the sound intermediate between [e] and [i]: nickle - p[i]tak, pero - p[i]ro. The vowel [and] after a hard consonant, a preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical institute, from spark - from [s]skra.. Pronunciation of consonants
in -ichna: Ilyini[sh]a, Lukini[sh]a, -Fomini[sh]a, and is also preserved in individual words: horse[sh]o, pere[sh]itsa, laundry[sh]aya, empty[ sh]y, starling[sh]ik, eggs[sh]itsa, etc. Some words with the combination chn are pronounced in two ways according to the norm: poryado [shn]o and poryado [chn]o. IN Different pronunciation of the combination chn serves for semantic differentiation of words: heartbeat - heartfelt friend. Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern spelling norms and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables (m[o]del, [o]asis, [o]tel) and hard consonants before a vowel front row[e] (s[te)nd, ko[de]ks, kash[ne]). In most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, mu[z']ey, [r']ektor, pio[n' ]er. The back consonants are always softened before [e]: pa[k’]et, [k’]egli, s[h’]ema, ba[g’]et. Pay attention to the table, which presents spelling errors, the list of which was not explained in the previous material:
EXAMPLES OF SPELLING ERRORS
1. Assimilation(similarity of sounds) Laboratory(instead of laboratory); Brunsboit(instead of hose); kolidor (corridor); biton (can); cardon (cardboard).
2. Epenthesis(unjustified insertion of sounds): b unprecedented ( norm: unprecedented); military commander (military leader); dermatin (dermatin); porcupine (porcupine); competent (competent); compromise (compromise); Competitive (competitive); ascertain (to state); summerCalculation (chronology); prospect (perspective); perEturbation (perturbation); slip (slip); presentation of light (the end of the world - the light disappears, i.e. dies); sTram (shame); Extraordinary (extraordinary), food (food).
3. Dierez(erroneous elimination of sounds): should be spoken KeychainOka(R.p., singular), not keychain; Azerbaijan(but not Azerbaijan); Time Pastime(but not pastime)
4. Metathesis(change of sounds), simplification: meticulous(norm: scrupulous); tram (trauma); tram (tram); colander (colander).
Lexical norms
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language, the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for correct speech. Right choice words and their use in the desired value always allow you to accurately express the content and meaning of a statement.
Mastering the norms of word usage occurs throughout a person’s life, because the vocabulary of the language includes, according to, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (Big Academic) 120,480 words. And this is far from the full volume of vocabulary, moreover, the vocabulary of only the literary language. The lexical system is constantly developing and is replenished with new words, including borrowed words. It lends itself poorly to formalization and unification. That's why it's impossible to give a list difficult cases implementation of norms of word usage, some set of rules. Consulting explanatory dictionaries and thoughtful reading of fiction and other texts help expand your vocabulary and develop your linguistic sense.
1. Remember the need to accurately understand the meaning of a word; if you have any difficulties, refer to explanatory dictionaries or look for a replacement for the given word with an equivalent known to you. The applicant who wrote in his essay: “He spent his evenings at the theater,” clearly did not know exact value the words “vegetate” - lead a miserable, meaningless, aimless life.
2. It is necessary to take into account that incorrect word usage may be associated with a failure to distinguish between the shades of meaning of synonyms, that is, words that are close, but not identical in meaning. For example, the use of the word extensive in the context: “One can only be surprised by his extensive (instead of big) love” is incorrect, since the adjective “vast” is synonymous with the adjective “big” when denoting size, magnitude (large territory, vast territory), but not when indicating the strength of feeling.
It is useful to refer to special dictionaries of synonyms. So, in the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” Z.E. Alexandrova, the word extensive is given as a synonym for the adjective big with the corresponding clarifications: extensive - large in volume.
3. We must not forget about such a phenomenon as the polysemy of a word. Many words in the language have this property, that is, the ability to be used in different meanings. Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main one is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then the derivatives from it (portable, secondary). For example, the verb touch has a primary meaning of “to touch someone or something” and two figurative, secondary meanings – “to relate to someone or something” (This does not concern you); “touch on any issue in the presentation” (touch on a topic, problem, question). A word taken in isolation, out of context, is perceived in its basic meaning, while derivative meanings are revealed only in combination with other words.
4. Remember that ambiguous word may have different lexical compatibility, that is, the ability to connect in meaning with other words. In a language, the ban on combining words with each other is imposed primarily by their inherent meanings, as well as by the tradition of use, the historically established norm. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “having the shape of a circle” is connected with the words table, box, face, etc. But, speaking in the meaning “whole, whole, without interruption (about time)”, the word round is combined only with the nouns year, day, and in the meaning “full, perfect” - with such as ignoramus, excellent student, orphan. Violation of lexical compatibility often occurs in speech.
Examples from the essays of applicants: “to create a special interest on the reader” (instead of “to make an impression” or “to arouse interest”), “to use folk art in your works” (instead of “address in your works to folk art"), "wear a symbolic image" (instead of "have a symbolic meaning"). In some cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the consolidation of words in stable expressions. Stable combinations (that’s why they are called that) have very definite connections that cannot be destroyed: pay attention or attach importance, and not “pay attention”; to play a role or have a meaning, rather than “play a meaning”; express a protest, not “make a protest.” This is why the following usages are erroneous: Moral issues are now given great importance. The novel played a great role in Pushkin's life. Going on a date, Katerina makes an open protest to the dark kingdom.
5. It is necessary to take into account the existence in the language of paronyms (from the Greek para next + onoma - name), that is, similar, consonant words of the same root with different meanings, and paronomases, that is, words of different roots, distant in meaning, but similar in sound. For example, dress and put on, economy and economy (paronyms); accustom and tame (paronomases). The presence of similarities in sound creates additional difficulties when choosing a word if you know its meaning only approximately. Hence such violations of the norms of word usage, such as a monogram instead of a monograph in the following statement: “This is a thought worthy in depth of an entire monogram” (a monogram is a “ligature of two or more letters”, a monograph is “a scientific study devoted to one issue, topic.
6. Be careful when using words that have recently entered our everyday life (neologisms), and especially vocabulary of foreign origin. You should not use borrowed words unless absolutely necessary, and even more so if the meaning of the word is not entirely clear to you. It can hardly be considered correct, for example, to use the word vernissage in the following context: “Every day, the vernissage of this artist’s paintings is visited by at least a hundred people.” Turning to the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, it is not difficult to find out that the vernissage is “the grand opening of an art exhibition,” which cannot be held every day. It would be quite appropriate to replace the word vernissage in our sentence with the word exhibition.
7. Avoid semantic redundancy in speech. When using words that are superfluous in meaning, so-called pleonasms arise (from the Greek pleonasmos excess) - speech excess, the inclusion in speech of words that are unnecessary from a purely semantic point of view, partial coincidence of the meanings of words forming the phrase: my autobiography (auto = my), the most best (best = the best), memorable souvenir (souvenir = keepsake), joint cooperation (cooperation - joint work), price list (price list - reference book, list of prices). Failure to comply with standards leads to errors and oddities.
Lexical norms also include rules for the use of phraseological units. A phraseological unit is an indivisible, integral in its meaning stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit. It is also called an idiom, or a stable combination of words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called a catchword.
As a rule, you cannot insert a new word into a phraseological unit or remove any component; you cannot replace a word even with those that are close in meaning and structure. Therefore, this expression is wrong, how to take charge of your mind(necessary: come to your senses). For example, in the phrase: Distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with the same brush(necessary: or cut with one comb, or measure by one arshin).
Morphological norms of the Russian language
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories. The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express a thought, diversify your speech, and testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
The largest group consists of options, the use of which is limited to the functional style or genre of speech. Thus, in colloquial speech there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; at to her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and spoken speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm. Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to denote varieties and varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marbles. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical , equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in the spring - in the spring, doors - doors. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language : Right rail, but not rail, Right shoe, but not shoes and shoe. In the Russian language there are many masculine and feminine words to designate people by their position or profession. With nouns denoting a position, profession, rank, title, difficulties arising in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.
The words professor, doktorsha have the meaning “professor’s wife”, “doctor’s wife” and a colloquial connotation, and as job titles they become colloquial. Generic parallels cashier, watchwoman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, watchwoman, usherette qualify as conversational, and doctor- like a colloquial one. Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language.
As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence More and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the person being called is used, when with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable and do not violate the norms of the literary language. In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech” regarding this use of definitions it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the defined noun is accepted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; the new Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi." Thus, the most common grammatical errors associated with the use of nouns are:
1. Can be heard incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel post. But nouns rail, shampoo- masculine, and corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say : railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel post.
2. Foreign indeclinable words denoting inanimate objects are, as a rule, neuter: highway, cafe, coat.
3. In the genitive plural the following forms are used:
masculine words: a pair of shoes, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volt (grams, kilograms ); feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets; neuter words: saucer, towels, blanket, mirror;
words that do not have a singular number: manger, everyday life, twilight.
4. Prepositional case of forms like on vacation, on vacation preferable to -e(in -u - colloquial forms).
5. In literary language, forms ending in -and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, vacation, passport, etc.; with ending -and, -s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc..
6. Collective numbers two, three etc. are used in the following cases: with nouns naming male persons (two friends); with nouns children, people, guys, faces(meaning person); with nouns used only in the plural (three days).
There are many options in the verbal inflection system.
From options lift - raise the second has a colloquial tone: The gypsies... raised their (horses) legs and tails, shouted, cursed (T.). From options suffer - suffer (suffer, suffer, suffer etc.) the second is colloquial. Variant forms of prefixed verbs with the suffix - Well- and without it: dried up - dried up, disappeared - disappeared, got wet - got wet, arose - arose, subsided - subsided. The first ones fell out of use.
Many verbs cannot be formed into the 1st person form : to win, to convince, to find oneself, to wonder, to wonder, to blow, to please, etc.
Verbs with infinitive - whose: burn, flow, oven(16 word forms in total), form variant forms of the 3rd person singular: along with literary ones: burns, flows, bakes - vernacular: burns, flows, bakes.
Individual verbs have no forms imperative mood : want, be able, see, hear, go, crave, rot etc. The Old Slavonic forms vizhd, used in the 19th century, became archaic; vernacular options you can't, go remain outside the literary norm, form go is conversational in nature. Literary form go, as well as forms formed from verbs listen, watch - listen(s), watch(s). The formation of comparative and superlative degrees causes difficulties: it is impossible to say - the closest.
Pronouns are often used incorrectly: Right - I think about you, I miss you, they miss us, I’m coming to you, their choice (not theirs).
A large number of errors are associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. 1. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declension of compound cardinal numerals, all the words included in it change, when declension of compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:
“The river current reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; “On the night of June 26 (twenty-sixth) it rained.”
2. During education phrases “numeral + noun that has only a plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)", collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numerals are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven, etc.) days.” You cannot say “twenty-two (three, four) scissors,” but you can say “twenty scissors and another pair,” “twenty-two pieces of scissors.”
3. The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". Masculine and neuter gender in nominative and accusative cases take shape "one and a half" in other cases - "one and a half". Feminine in the nominative and accusative cases - "one and a half". In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions
because of and thanks. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore, it is used to indicate the cause that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to proper treatment. If there is a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks, with an indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: Didn't come to work due to illness. In this case it is correct to say - because of illness.
